Regendering Childbirth: Catholicism, Medical Activism, and Birth Preparation in Post-War Poland.

This article examines the work of the gynecologist Wlodzimierz Fijalkowski, the key promoter of preparation for childbirth in Communist and early democratic Poland. From the late 1950s until the 1990s, Fijalkowski developed a childbirth preparation training protocol that served as an inspiration for childbirth preparation schools across the country. Through analysis of Fijalkowski's publications in medical journals, books aimed at both professional and lay readers, visual aids for childbirth training, and archival material, we demonstrate that a specific vision of gender roles and relationships lay at the core of Fijalkowski's psychoprophylactic project. This vision represented a re-definition and re-essentialization of femininity and masculinity, and motherhood and fatherhood, while simultaneously advocating for radical change in the relationship between women in labor and obstetric professionals. Fijalkowski's ideas and advocacy were intimately connected with a humanization of the embryo and fetus from the earliest stages of pregnancy, and we show how his work became an important transmission medium for the gradual mainstreaming of anti-abortion ideas within public discourse in late-Communist Poland.

Innovation and Maladjustment: Contraceptive Technologies in State-Socialist Poland, 1950s-1970s.

A range of contraceptive technologies was available in Poland between the late 1950s and early 1970s. Following the legalization of abortion in 1956, a public health campaign, supported by the communist authorities, popularized contraception. Based on archival sources, press items, and popular medical literature, this article is the first systematic study of contraceptive technologies in postwar Poland before the pill, which also examines the trajectories of female barrier methods and spermicides. The availability and quality of these contraceptive products fluctuated in the centrally planned economy, and they were ascribed at times contradictory values. Thus, the circulation of contraceptive technologies was shaped by concurrent processes of innovation and maladjustment disconnected from the authorities' declarations of support for contraception as an alternative to abortion. Focusing on the materiality of contraceptive technologies sheds new light on the history of reproduction in postwar Poland.

In Sickness and in Health: Expert Discussions on Abortion Indications, Risks, and Patient-Doctor Relationships in Postwar Poland.

This article analyzes expert debates relating to abortion in Poland between 1956 and 1993, a period when the procedure was legal and accessible. Through the pages of the primary Polish journal for gynecology and obstetrics, Ginekologia Polska, the author traces continuities and ruptures around three major intersecting themes: the procedure's indications, its (dis)connection to health, and the patient-doctor relationship. The journal became a forum showcasing interpretative tensions over indications for abortion and the malleability of the categories "therapeutic" and "social." In addition to these tensions, abortion was represented throughout this period as a potentially risky surgery, although this was initially nuanced with parallel representations of legal abortion combating maternal mortality. During the 1970s, abortion began to be linked to infertility, often in simplistic cause-and-effect terms. Simultaneously, opposition to abortion based on the idea of defense of the nation and fetal "life," surfaced in expert discourse.

Corrigendum to: No Man's Land? Gendering Contraception in Family Planning Advice Literature in State-Socialist Poland (1950s-1980s).

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1093/shm/hkz007.][This corrects the article DOI: 10.1093/shm/hkz007.].

Contraception and Catholicism in the Twentieth Century: Transnational Perspectives on Expert, Activist and Intimate Practices.

This special issue uses Catholicism as a thread to bring together five contributions to the transnational history of contraception. The articles, which cover examples from Western and East-Central Europe, East Africa and Latin America, all explore the complex interplay between users and providers of birth control in contexts marked by prevalence of the Catholic religion and/or strong political position of the Catholic Church. In the countries examined here, Brazil, Belgium, Poland, Ireland and Rwanda, Catholicism was the majority religion during the different moments of the long twentieth century the authors of this special issue focus on. Using transnationalism as a perspective to examine the social history of the entanglements between Catholicism and contraception, this special issue seeks to underscore the ways in which individuals and organisations used, adapted and contested local and transnational ideas and debate around family planning. It also examines the role of experts and activist groups in the promotion of family planning, while paying attention to national nuances in Catholic understandings of birth control. The contributions shed light on the motivations behind involvement in birth control activism and expertise, its modus operandi, networking strategies and interactions with men and women demanding contraceptive information and technology. Moreover, through the use of oral history, as well as other print sources such as women's magazines, this collection of articles seeks to illustrate 'ordinary' men and women's practices in the realm of reproductive health.

Family Planning Advice in State-Socialist Poland, 1950s-80s: Local and Transnational Exchanges.

This paper scrutinises the relations between different models of family planning advice and their evolution in Poland between the mid-1950s and the late 1980s, focusing on their similarities and dissimilarities, conflicts and concordances. From 1956 onwards, the delivery of family planning advice became a priority for both the Polish Catholic Church and the party-state, especially its health authorities, which supported the foundation of the Society of Conscious Motherhood and aspired to mainstream birth control advice through the network of public well-woman clinics. As a consequence, two systems of family planning counselling emerged: the professional, secular family planning movement and Catholic pre-marital and marital counselling. We argue that reciprocal influence and emulation existed between state-sponsored and Catholic family planning in state-socialist Poland, and that both models used transnational organisations and debates relating to contraception for their construction and legitimisation. By evaluating the extent to which the strategies and practices for the delivery of birth control advice utilised by transnational birth control movements were employed in a 'second world' context such as Poland, we reveal unexpected supranational links that complicate and problematise historiographical and popular understandings of the Iron Curtain and Cold War Europe.

No Man's Land? Gendering Contraception in Family Planning Advice Literature in State-Socialist Poland (1950s-1980s).

This article examines popular medical discourses on contraception produced in state-socialist Poland following the legalisation of abortion in 1956, a time when the party state declared family planning to be a public health project. By analysing popular medical literature, I argue that the popularisation of family planning constructed and relied on gender norms that could ease anxieties about the mainstreaming of ideas relating to sexuality and contraception, as well as about gender equality in a state-socialist context. I show that the femininity constructed in Polish birth control advice was based in fertility and the physical attractiveness required to maintain a husband's sexual interest. Although masculinity was represented as distant, egoistic and violent, experts broadcast mixed messages about the effectiveness and usefulness of popular male contraceptive methods, some of which were at times utterly demonised.

Historia de la anticoncepción e historia oral, una revisión bibliográfica / Oral history of contraception: A review

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¿Una pequeña revolución sexual? Experiencias de sexualidad y anticoncepción de mujeres andaluzas entre los años cincuenta y ochenta del siglo XX / A small sexual revolution? Andalusian women's experiences of sexuality and contraception between the 1950s and 1980s

El artículo indaga en el impacto de los "modelos de género" oficiales del Franquismo, ligados al carácter pronatalista del régimen y a la criminalización de la anticoncepción que instaló, sobre las prácticas sexuales y reproductivas de las mujeres. Analizamos también como cambiaron estas prácticas en relación con el progresivo desmantelamiento de estos modelos durante la Transición Democrática. Nuestro objetivo es profundizar en la subjetividad y diversidad de las experiencias relacionadas con la sexualidad y el control de la natalidad de las mujeres españolas residentes en diferentes lugares de Andalucía durante las décadas del 1950, 1960 y 1970. Para ello, llevamos a cabo 22 entrevistas en la ciudad de Granada y en dos pueblos, uno de ellos en la provincia de Granada y otro en la provincia de Córdoba. Partiendo de sus relatos, pudimos constatar que la prohibición legal de la venta y divulgación de métodos anticonceptivos fue altamente ineficaz. Independientemente de la clase social o lugar de residencia, tanto las mujeres como sus parejas utilizaron diversos procedimientos y productos anticonceptivos para espaciar o limitar el número de su descendencia. Los relatos de sexualidad prematrimonial y búsqueda activa del placer de las mujeres y los azarosos procesos de toma de decisiones en relación con el tamaño familiar nos permiten matizar la imagen monolítica de la "represión sexual" en la España de Franco, poniendo en tela de juicio una negociación a nivel micro de los modelos de género y de la legislación anti-anticonceptiva en distintos entornos sociales y en parejas con distinto grado de compenetración y jerarquía. Las experiencias de las mujeres urbanas, que hablan de relaciones sexuales con y sin llegar al coito vaginal antes del matrimonio y de la importancia del placer contrastan con los testimonios de violencia sexual experimentada por algunas mujeres de más edad y del medio rural. Las primeras vivieron su revolución sexual, casi siempre dentro de una pareja formal con la que mantenían una relación igualitaria mientras que, para las segundas, la sexualidad y los embarazos fueron una herramienta de dominación masculina

This article addresses the impact of the official "gender models" of Francoism, linked to the regime's birth rate promotion and criminalization of contraception, on women’s sexual and reproductive practices. We also analyze how these practices changed in relation to the progressive dismantling of these models during the Democratic Transition. The aim of this article is to explore the subjectivity and diversity of experiences related to sex and birth control reported by women who had lived in the Southern Spanish region of Andalusia during the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. For this purpose, we conducted 22 oral history interviews in Granada city and in two small towns, one in Cordoba province and the other in Granada province. Based on their accounts, we affirm that prohibition of the sale and dissémination of contraceptive methods was highly ineffective. Regardless of their social class or area of residence, both the women and their partners used various contraceptive techniques and products to space out or limit the number of their children. Tales of premarital sex, the active search of women's for sexual pleasure, and the somewhat random decision-making on family size, allow us to question the monolithic image of "sexual repression" in Francoist Spain. They also raise questions about micro-negotiations around gender models and anti-contraception legislation in different social settings and in couples with different degrees of mutual understanding and equality. Experiences of urban women, who spoke of pre-marital sexual relations (with or without penetration) and the importance of sexual pleasure, contrast with testimony of sexual violence fromsome older women in a rural environment. While the former lived through their sexual revolution, which took place within a formal and egalitarian relationship, sexuality and pregnancies were a tool of male domination for the latter group

"Pregnancy and labour cause more deaths than oral contraceptives": The debate on the pill in the Spanish press in the 1960s and 1970s.

From 1941 to 1978, Franco's regime in Spain banned all contraceptive methods. The pill started circulating in Spain from the 1960s, officially as a drug used in gynaecological therapy. However, in the following decade it was also increasingly used and prescribed as a contraceptive. This paper analyses debates about the contraceptive pill in the Spanish daily newspaper ABC and in two magazines, Blanco y Negro and Triunfo, in the 1960s and 1970s. It concludes that the debate on this contraceptive method was much more heterogeneous than might be expected given the Catholic-conservative character of the dictatorship. The daily press focused on the adverse effects of the drug and magazines concentrated on the ethical and religious aspects of the pill and discussed it in a generally positive light. Male doctors and Catholic authors dominated the debate.

Sexo y género en medicina. Una introducción a los estudios de las mujeres y de género en ciencias de la salud / No disponible

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'Clueless about contraception': the introduction and circulation of the contraceptive pill in state-socialist Poland (1960s-1970s).

This paper discusses the introduction of the pill into the state-socialist Polish market in the late 1960s and its circulation over the following decade. Abortion, legalised for socio-economic reasons in 1956, had been available practically on demand since 1959, and there were no legal obstacles to contraception. The pill first appeared in Poland in the early 1960s, but was not widely available in pharmacies until 1969, when the local pharmaceutical industry began production. Throughout the 1970s, only two brands were widely available: Femigen and Angravid. The pill played a marginal role in family planning during the 1960s and 1970s in Poland, with cycle-observation, backed by the possibility of a legal abortion, being the main resource for birth control. This was due to structural limits to the distribution of the pill on a centrally-planned market closed to Western pharmaceutical companies, cultural patterns of sexual behaviour, and the availability of abortion.

Publicidad farmacéutica y género: anuncios de la "píldora" en España (1964.1985) / No disponible

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